Can the performance effects of upward counterfactual thoughts be attributed to effort mobilization

Upward counterfactual thoughts identify how a previous outcome could have turned out better. Research has found that such thoughts are associated with intentions to improve on subsequent performance outcomes. The present dissertation proposes a new self-evaluation model of upward counterfactual thinking which reasons that upward counterfactual thinking is closely tied to self-evaluation and self-regulation. The new model precisely outlines the conditions under which upward counterfactuals impact affect and performance. This dissertation aimed to find preliminary support for the model by examining the performance effects of upward counterfactuals. Four studies investigated whether the beneficial consequences of upward counterfactuals for performance are caused by amplified effort mobilization or the identification of useful behaviors. In addition, the role of affect and controllability of behaviors mentioned by the counterfactual were examined. Results showed that upward counterfactuals and specific plans in the form of implementation intentions have independent and additive effects for performance. Moreover, upward counterfactuals had broad effects on performance and persistence, suggesting that effort mobilization was likely responsible for the beneficial effects of upward counterfactuals. Finally, the performance effects appeared to also be connected to evaluations of insufficient goal progress and belief that the performance outcome was controllable.